Covid-19 and African swine fever: What is the possible association? | Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism
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Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism - GS
https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/biological-warfare-and-bioterrorism-gs.html
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It is important to emphasize that bioterrorist attacks against livestock or crops do not require access to weaponized diseases or laboratory cultures of disease organisms, nor do they involve organisms that may cause disease in humans. Samples of infectious materials obtained or cultured from infected plants or animals (or by-products thereof) are all that would be required in many instances (Brown 1999). Natural, highly virulent diseases of livestock that are easily acquired and transported...
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- African swine fever virus - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_swine_fever_virus#Diagnosis …
- Classical swine fever - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_swine_fever …
- It is important to emphasize that bioterrorist attacks against livestock or crops do not require access to weaponized diseases or laboratory cultures of disease organisms, nor do they involve organisms that may cause disease in humans. https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/52/7/583/247983 …
- Diseases of particular concern for their bioweapons potential include smallpox, tularemia, plague, Newcastle disease, FMD, classical swine fever (“hog cholera”), avian influenza, African swine fever https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/52/7/583/247983 …
- Bioweapons, Biodiversity, and Ecocide: Potential Effects of Biological Weapons on Biological Diversity | BioScience | Oxford Academic https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/52/7/583/247983 …
- Germany and Poland discuss new action to stop spread of African swine fever https://thepigsite.com/news/2020/01/germany-and-poland-discuss-new-action-to-stop-spread-of-african-swine-fever … via @thepigsite
- Germany, one of Europe's major pork exporters. ... Wild boars are spreading ASF and there are fears infected animals could bring the disease into Germany, threatening Germany's huge pork exports to China.
infected pork in germany - Google Search https://www.google.com/search?q=infected+pork+in+germany&rlz=1C1CHBF_enUS733US733&oq=infected+pork+in+germany&aqs=chrome..69i57j69i65j69i60l2.13868j1j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8 … - Can COVID-19 be spread through poop? Rice University researcher says it's not a silly question http://www.khou.com/article/news/health/coronavirus/can-covid-19-be-spread-through-poop-rice-university-researcher-says-its-not-a-silly-question/285-f32aa1f0-3221-4c7f-b03b-4a2021d48ad1 … via @KHOU
- Five sailors on USS Roosevelt test positive for coronavirus for a second time https://nypost.com/2020/05/15/5-sailors-on-uss-roosevelt-get-covid-19-for-a-second-time/?utm_source=twitter_sitebuttons&utm_medium=site%20buttons&utm_campaign=site%20buttons … via @nypost
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Michael Novakhov - Posts on Twitter - 250 | Page
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» mikenov on Twitter: Germany and Poland discuss new action to stop spread of African swine fever thepigsite.com/news/2020/01/g… via @thepigsite
16/05/20 08:10 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Germany and Poland discuss new action to stop spread of African swine fever thepigsite.com/news/2020/01/g… via @thepigsite Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:10am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 08:10 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Germany and Poland discuss new action to stop spread of African swine fever thepigsite.com/news/2020/01/g… via @thepigsite Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:10am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/H9SbktcceKCDbJ…
16/05/20 08:09 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/H9SbktcceKCDbJ… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:09am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 08:09 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/H9SbktcceKCDbJ… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:09am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/f26rrYGHM446hx…
16/05/20 08:09 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/f26rrYGHM446hx… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:09am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 08:09 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/f26rrYGHM446hx… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:09am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/FE8ZgD1Pik3wZ6…
16/05/20 08:08 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/FE8ZgD1Pik3wZ6… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:08am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 08:08 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/FE8ZgD1Pik3wZ6… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:08am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/TDUER8UYXhnYJ7…
16/05/20 08:08 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/TDUER8UYXhnYJ7… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:08am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 08:08 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/TDUER8UYXhnYJ7… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:08am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/pAjk83EkH4YGqF…
16/05/20 08:07 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/pAjk83EkH4YGqF… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:07am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 08:07 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Infected pork in Germany images.app.goo.gl/pAjk83EkH4YGqF… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 11:07am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Germany, one of Europe's major pork exporters. ... Wild boars are spreading ASF and there are fears infected animals could bring the disease into Germany, threatening Germany's huge pork exports to China.infected pork in germany - Goo
16/05/20 08:05 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Germany, one of Europe's major pork exporters. ... Wild boars are spreading ASF and there are fears infected animals could bring the disease into Germany, threatening Germany's huge pork exports to China. infected pork in germany - Googl...
16/05/20 08:05 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Germany, one of Europe's major pork exporters. ... Wild boars are spreading ASF and there are fears infected animals could bring the disease into Germany, threatening Germany's huge pork exports to China. infected pork in germany - Googl...
» mikenov on Twitter: Can COVID-19 be spread through poop? Rice University researcher says it's not a silly question khou.com/article/news/h… via @KHOU
16/05/20 07:18 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Can COVID-19 be spread through poop? Rice University researcher says it's not a silly question khou.com/article/news/h… via @KHOU Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 10:18am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 07:18 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Can COVID-19 be spread through poop? Rice University researcher says it's not a silly question khou.com/article/news/h… via @KHOU Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 10:18am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Five sailors on USS Roosevelt test positive for coronavirus for a second time nypost.com/2020/05/15/5-s… via @nypost
16/05/20 07:02 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Five sailors on USS Roosevelt test positive for coronavirus for a second time nypost.com/2020/05/15/5-s… via @nypost Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 10:02am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 07:02 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Five sailors on USS Roosevelt test positive for coronavirus for a second time nypost.com/2020/05/15/5-s… via @nypost Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 10:02am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Burr submits final Russia report before leaving chairmanship wach.com/news/nation-wo…
16/05/20 07:00 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Burr submits final Russia report before leaving chairmanship wach.com/news/nation-wo… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 10:00am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 07:00 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Burr submits final Russia report before leaving chairmanship wach.com/news/nation-wo… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 10:00am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Calling on Americans to Vote Trump Out, The Lancet Eviscerates US President Over 'Incoherent' Covid-19 Response - go.shr.lc/3cEBAGk via @commondreams
16/05/20 06:56 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Calling on Americans to Vote Trump Out, The Lancet Eviscerates US President Over 'Incoherent' Covid-19 Response - go.shr.lc/3cEBAGk via @commondreams Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:56am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 06:56 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Calling on Americans to Vote Trump Out, The Lancet Eviscerates US President Over 'Incoherent' Covid-19 Response - go.shr.lc/3cEBAGk via @commondreams Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:56am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Islamic State looks to ride coronavirus to rebound | Tom Roeder gazette.com/military/islam… via @csgazette
16/05/20 06:50 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Islamic State looks to ride coronavirus to rebound | Tom Roeder gazette.com/military/islam… via @csgazette Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:50am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 06:50 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Islamic State looks to ride coronavirus to rebound | Tom Roeder gazette.com/military/islam… via @csgazette Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:50am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Yes, we need a global coronavirus inquiry, but not for petty political point-scoring theconversation.com/yes-we-need-a-… via @ConversationEDU
16/05/20 06:43 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Yes, we need a global coronavirus inquiry, but not for petty political point-scoring theconversation.com/yes-we-need-a-… via @ConversationEDU Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:43am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 06:43 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Yes, we need a global coronavirus inquiry, but not for petty political point-scoring theconversation.com/yes-we-need-a-… via @ConversationEDU Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:43am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Trump Promises 'Warp Speed' Coronavirus Vaccine Effort With New Program tinyurl.com/ycumg6fr
16/05/20 06:33 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Trump Promises 'Warp Speed' Coronavirus Vaccine Effort With New Program tinyurl.com/ycumg6fr Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:33am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 06:33 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Trump Promises 'Warp Speed' Coronavirus Vaccine Effort With New Program tinyurl.com/ycumg6fr Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:33am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Where did Covid-19 come from? What we know about its origins theguardian.com/world/2020/may…
16/05/20 06:19 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Where did Covid-19 come from? What we know about its origins theguardian.com/world/2020/may… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:19am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 06:19 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Where did Covid-19 come from? What we know about its origins theguardian.com/world/2020/may… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:19am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Determining the source of the virus would have important implications for epidemiology, he added, saying that if the virus was indeed synthetic, then it could be easier for it to be eradicated. asiatimes.com/2020/02/covid-…
16/05/20 06:09 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Determining the source of the virus would have important implications for epidemiology, he added, saying that if the virus was indeed synthetic, then it could be easier for it to be eradicated. asiatimes.com/2020/02/covid-… Posted by mik...
16/05/20 06:09 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Determining the source of the virus would have important implications for epidemiology, he added, saying that if the virus was indeed synthetic, then it could be easier for it to be eradicated. asiatimes.com/2020/02/covid-… Posted by mik...
» mikenov on Twitter: French researchers had discovered four more amino acids in the gene sequence of Covid-19 than other known coronaviruses, which could be added artificially to make the viral transmission easier. asiatimes.com/2020/02/covid-…
16/05/20 06:08 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
French researchers had discovered four more amino acids in the gene sequence of Covid-19 than other known coronaviruses, which could be added artificially to make the viral transmission easier. asiatimes.com/2020/02/covid-… Posted by mik...
16/05/20 06:08 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
French researchers had discovered four more amino acids in the gene sequence of Covid-19 than other known coronaviruses, which could be added artificially to make the viral transmission easier. asiatimes.com/2020/02/covid-… Posted by mik...
» mikenov on Twitter: analyses of the Covid-19 virus have shown that it had a 96% genetic similarity with an RaTG13 bat virus also stored at the institute, and that the Covid-19 could be “manufactured” by modifying the RaTG13 virus. asiatimes.com/2020/02/co
16/05/20 06:07 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
analyses of the Covid-19 virus have shown that it had a 96% genetic similarity with an RaTG13 bat virus also stored at the institute, and that the Covid-19 could be “manufactured” by modifying the RaTG13 virus. asiatimes.com/2020/02/covi...
16/05/20 06:07 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
analyses of the Covid-19 virus have shown that it had a 96% genetic similarity with an RaTG13 bat virus also stored at the institute, and that the Covid-19 could be “manufactured” by modifying the RaTG13 virus. asiatimes.com/2020/02/covi...
» mikenov on Twitter: Covid-19 may be man-made, claims Taiwan scholar - Asia Times asiatimes.com/2020/02/covid-…
16/05/20 06:04 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Covid-19 may be man-made, claims Taiwan scholar - Asia Times asiatimes.com/2020/02/covid-… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:04am mikenov on Twitter
16/05/20 06:04 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Covid-19 may be man-made, claims Taiwan scholar - Asia Times asiatimes.com/2020/02/covid-… Posted by mikenov on Saturday, May 16th, 2020 9:04am mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: 2:35 PM 5/15/2020 » #SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Didn't Come from Pangolins, Scientists Say 15/05/20 13:48 from Google Alert - sars cov 2 - The Origins Of Covid -19, Sars-Cov-2, and Coronavirus covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/sars-c…
15/05/20 19:30 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
2:35 PM 5/15/2020 » #SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Didn't Come from Pangolins, Scientists Say 15/05/20 13:48 from Google Alert - sars cov 2 - The Origins Of Covid -19, Sars-Cov-2, and Coronavirus covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/sars-c… Pos...
15/05/20 19:30 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
2:35 PM 5/15/2020 » #SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Didn't Come from Pangolins, Scientists Say 15/05/20 13:48 from Google Alert - sars cov 2 - The Origins Of Covid -19, Sars-Cov-2, and Coronavirus covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/sars-c… Pos...
» Saved Stories - Michael Novakhov on Twitter: COVID-19 Isn’t the Only Sickness Spreading Through Meat Plants sentientmedia.org/covid-19-isnt-…
15/05/20 19:30 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
COVID-19 Isn’t the Only Sickness Spreading Through Meat Plants sentientmedia.org/covid-19-isnt-… Posted by mikenov on Friday, May 15th, 2020 9:16pm Saved Stories - Michael Novakhov on Twitter
15/05/20 19:30 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
COVID-19 Isn’t the Only Sickness Spreading Through Meat Plants sentientmedia.org/covid-19-isnt-… Posted by mikenov on Friday, May 15th, 2020 9:16pm Saved Stories - Michael Novakhov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: Covid-19-Review: 2:35 PM 5/15/2020 » SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Didn't ... covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/sars-c…
15/05/20 19:29 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Covid-19-Review: 2:35 PM 5/15/2020 » SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Didn't ... covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/sars-c… Posted by mikenov on Friday, May 15th, 2020 10:29pm mikenov on Twitter
15/05/20 19:29 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
Covid-19-Review: 2:35 PM 5/15/2020 » SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Didn't ... covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/sars-c… Posted by mikenov on Friday, May 15th, 2020 10:29pm mikenov on Twitter
» mikenov on Twitter: COVID-19 Isn’t the Only Sickness Spreading Through Meat Plants sentientmedia.org/covid-19-isnt-…
15/05/20 18:16 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
COVID-19 Isn’t the Only Sickness Spreading Through Meat Plants sentientmedia.org/covid-19-isnt-… Posted by mikenov on Friday, May 15th, 2020 9:16pm mikenov on Twitter
15/05/20 18:16 from Michael Novakhov on Twitter from Michael_Novakhov (1 sites)
COVID-19 Isn’t the Only Sickness Spreading Through Meat Plants sentientmedia.org/covid-19-isnt-… Posted by mikenov on Friday, May 15th, 2020 9:16pm mikenov on Twitter
Michael Novakhov - SharedNewsLinks℠ | InBrief |
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| Bioweapons, Biodiversity, and Ecocide: Potential Effects of Biological Weapons on Biological Diversity | BioScience | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Many analysts rank cultured and genetically engineered biological organisms as the most dangerous of all existing weapons technologies, with the potential for producing more extensive and devastating effects on human populations than even fusion nuclear weapons (Henderson 1999). Biological weapons (bioweapons) are defined as biological organisms, and substances derived directly from living organisms, that can be used to cause death or injury to humans, animals, or plants. Diseases and biological toxins have been used as weapons of war throughout recorded history, from at least as early as Biblical times to the present day. Historically, bioweapons were used primarily, although not exclusively, for direct attacks against human populations. Biowarfare has historically involved the use of plant and fungal toxins (hellebore, ergot), animal carcasses, human cadavers, disease-contaminated clothing or blankets, and fecal matter (Christopher et al. 1997, Kortepeter et al. 2001). The potential spectrum of bioterrorism ranges from isolated acts against individuals by individuals (rogue scientist or Una bomber-type scenarios) to tactical and strategic military uses and state-sponsored international terrorism intended to cause mass casualties within or among humans or animals or both (Tucker 2000, Zilinskas 2000).
Perhaps the oldest traditional application of bioweapon techniques has been the contamination or poisoning of drinking water sources using animal carcasses, human cadavers, feces, or poisonous plants and their derivatives. During the 14th century, Mongol armies catapulted the infected corpses of plague victims over the walls into the besieged city of Caffa, in what is now the Crimea, to try to force the surrender of the city's inhabitants. During the 18th century, the British colonial army used smallpox-contaminated blankets to spread disease among Native American tribes in northeastern North America and smallpox-infected civilian infiltrators to spread disease among insurgent American militias during the American Revolutionary War (Wheelis 1999). Government-sponsored scientific research into the development of technologically sophisticated applications of biological weapons for use against humans, livestock, and crops began during the early decades of the 20th century. Most government bioweapons programs included research on the culture and testing of disease agents intended specifically for use against livestock and food crops (Ban 2000). During World War I, Germany investigated techniques for using anthrax, glanders, cholera, and fungal diseases of wheat as biological weapons. German espionage agents attempted to create outbreaks of anthrax among livestock in Romania and Argentina and spread glanders among horses and mulesthen still critically important as cavalry mounts and draft animals for the transport of artillery, ordnance, and suppliesin Mesopotamia, France, Argentina, and the United States. Germany was also implicated in an attempt to precipitate an epidemic of plague among humans in St. Petersburg, Russia (Dire and McGovern 2002). Japan developed and used biological weapons against human and animal populations in Asia during the period 19321945 (Kortepeter et al. 2001). Plague-infected fleas were reportedly used by the Japanese to precipitate plague epidemics in China during World War II, and it has been estimated that some 10,000 human subjects were used for bioweapon experiments in China involving anthrax, plague, tularemia, and smallpox (Christopher et al. 1997). During the 1980s and 1990s, Soviet scientists used newly developed genetic engineering techniques to create antibiotic-resistant and vaccine-subverting strains of smallpox, anthrax, plague, and tularemia for bioweapon applications (Alibek and Handelman 2000). Genetically modified zoonotic and epizootic diseases of humans and animals (plague, tularemia, anthrax) and virulent cultivated or wild strains of natural livestock diseases (e.g., foot and mouth disease [FMD], rinderpest, brucellosis) represent potentially serious threats to livestock, wildlife, and endangered species populations. Plant diseases developed for bioweapons applications against food crops, opium poppies, and coca plants may, however, infect nontarget species of wild plants and become established locally subsequent to their introduction to new environments (Madden and van den Bosch 2002). Bioterrorist uses of enzootic livestock diseases and emerging zoonotic diseases (diseases that can be transmitted between animal and human populations) represent a potentially serious threat to livestock and wildlife populations never previously exposed to these diseases. This risk holds true even, and perhaps especially in some instances, for wildlife species that may become infected by serious livestock diseases without exhibiting overt clinical signs of infection. Many formerly ubiquitous diseases that have been eradicated from livestock populations in the United States and Western Europe over the past century are still common elsewhere and readily accessible to individuals and terrorist organizations. Vaccines for many animal diseases still common in developing countries have been phased out in Europe and North America, and these vaccines, along with drugs for routine treatment, may not be readily available in sufficient quantities to suppress large-scale disease outbreaks among animals and livestock. Many of the bioweapons agents cultured and tested for use against animals and humans during the early decades of the 20th century were not highly contagious organisms. Current biological weapons arsenals, however, include diseases that are highly infectious and contagious, easy to produce and deploy, and able to cause high morbidity or mortality in human and animal populations. Diseases of particular concern for their bioweapons potential include smallpox, tularemia, plague, Newcastle disease, FMD, classical swine fever (hog cholera), avian influenza, African swine fever, Rift Valley fever, African horse sickness, rinderpest, and Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (OTA 1993, CNS 2002, Kortepeter et al. 2001). Prior assumptions that bioweaponeers and bioterrorists might not be willing to endanger their own lives in developing and deploying highly contagious human diseases need to be reevaluated in the light of the many recent suicide attacks in the United States and Israel. It is important to emphasize that bioterrorist attacks against livestock or crops do not require access to weaponized diseases or laboratory cultures of disease organisms, nor do they involve organisms that may cause disease in humans. Samples of infectious materials obtained or cultured from infected plants or animals (or by-products thereof) are all that would be required in many instances (Brown 1999). Natural, highly virulent diseases of livestock that are easily acquired and transported, not dangerous to humans, and capable of causing catastrophic epidemics in countries with industrialized livestock production methods are common and widely distributed within many countries around the world. Virulent contagious diseases of livestock such as anthrax, rinderpest, and FMD are still enzootic and sometimes even common within a number of countries associated with highly organized, well-financed, and globally active terrorist organizations (Roeder 1999, Tucker 2000). No elaborate delivery technologies or methods are necessary for clandestine, economically targeted bioweapons attacks on agricultural crops or livestock. All that is required is a willing actor or conspirator, a little careful planning, and access to an appropriate disease agent (OTA 1993). The use of bioweapons for the purpose of economic sabotage against national agricultural and livestock industries is a potentially serious threat to biodiversity. Not only do bioweapons have direct effects on the genetic diversity of domesticated plants and animals, there is also the potential for both direct and indirect consequences on plant and animal populations. In this article, we focus on the potential effects of the use of laboratory-cultured bioweapons as well as natural (wild-type) disease organisms as biological weapons within and among animal populations. Much of what we discuss also applies to the potential effects of plant bioweapons on nontarget species of wild and domesticated plants. Biological warfare and bioterrorismZoonotic and epizootic disease organisms known to have been cultivated and tested in bioweapon research programs include Bacillus anthracis (anthrax), Yersinia pestis (plague), Brucella abortus (brucellosis), Clostridium botulinum, Apthovirus (FMD), Burkholderia mallei (glanders), morbilliviruses (measles, canine distemper, rinderpest), Staphylococcus, Francisella tularensis (tularemia), rabies virus, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus, and several virulent hemorrhagic fever viruses (Ebola, Marburg, Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever) (OTA 1993, Kortepeter et al. 2001, CNS 2002). Plant bioweapons cultured and tested for disrupting agriculture and food production have included fungal diseases (Fusarium spp., Tilletia spp.), viral diseases, and even insect pests (e.g., Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata).The former USSR sponsored extensive research on possible bioweapons applications of a variety of fungal diseases of important food crops (wheat stem rust, rice blast), viral and bacterial diseases of domesticated livestock (e.g., anthrax, tularemia, malignant catarrhal fever), and insect disease vectors (mosquitoes, ticks, fleas) (Bozheyeva et al. 1999). The Soviet bioweapons program tested plant and livestock bioweapon diseases for potential deployment, with the goal of disrupting food production and food processing infrastructures and damaging the agricultural sector of national economies (Alibek and Handelman 2000). Soviet scientists reportedly used newly developed genetic engineering techniques to create vaccine-subverting and antibiotic-resistant strains of anthrax, plague, tularemia, and smallpox for attacks against military forces and civilian populations (Bozheyeva et al. 1999, Alibek and Handelman 2000). Most, perhaps even all, of the cultivated and potentially weaponized diseases identified by the Office International des Epizooties as possible major threats to livestock and wildlife species (FMD, rinderpest, Newcastle disease, African swine fever, sheep pox, and Rift Valley fever; OIE 2001) were experimentally tested for bioweapons applications under the Soviet bioweapons research and development program (Bozheyeva et al. 1999, Kortepeter et al. 2001) Countries believed to have active biowarfare research programs during recent years include some former USSR states (i.e., Russia, Kazakstan), Syria, Iraq, Iran, Libya, North Korea, Israel, Egypt, Taiwan, China, South Africa, Libya, Cuba, Romania, Bulgaria, Pakistan, India, United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United States (Leitenberg 2000). Several major international terrorist organizations, including but not restricted to the Al Qaeda network, are believed to have the financial resources and political contacts needed to access state-of-the-art bioweapon disease cultures and production technologies. Aum Shinrikyo, a Japanese terrorist group that used sarin gas for a terrorist attack on the Tokyo subway system, was also involved in developing terrorist bioweapons employing anthrax spores, botulism toxin, Q fever, and Ebola virus (Christopher et al. 1997). Recent advances in molecular biology and genetic engineering have opened the way for a potential Pandora's box scenario, in which the unforeseen proliferation of a bioweapon organism could severely affect human and animal populations at regional, continental, or even global levels. Recent gene-transfer experiments with viral interleukin4 and viral diseases of the house mouse (Mus musculus) have demonstrated that even carefully controlled and monitored genetic engineering experiments may produce entirely unanticipated results, generating viruses or organisms with unwanted, deleterious, and sometimes extremely dangerous properties (Jackson et al. 2001). Threats to biodiversity and endangered speciesThere is a growing but still insufficient scientific recognition of the importance of disease control for the conservation of biodiversity and endangered species populations (Daszak et al. 2000). Organisms that are relatively benign in their natural hosts can cause fatal diseases in other species. Cross-species infections with human herpes simplex Type 1 may be fatal for New World marmosets (Callithrix spp.), and an apparently benign herpes virus of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) causes a fatal systemic disease in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) (Richman et al. 1999). Saprolegnia ferox, a common oomycete disease of hatchery-reared fishes, has been implicated as a factor in disease-related population declines of amphibians in northwestern North America (Kiesecker et al. 2001). Avian malaria and avian pox have been implicated in the extinctions of native bird species in Hawaii, and MacPhee and Marx (1997) suggest that diseases introduced through humans and human commensals may have been a factor in prehistoric mass extinctions of wildlife species in Madagascar and North America.The use of biological weapons against livestock populations or agricultural crops could have potentially disastrous spillover effects on wild species of plants and animals (Brown 1999, Daszak et al. 2000). Many of the currently available bioweapon pathogens are broad-spectrum diseases that are capable of causing high levels of mortality or morbidity among wild and domesticated species of animals, as well as human beings (figure 1). Three of the four genetically modified pathogens created specifically for bioweapon attacks against human populations are zoonotic diseases whose release into the environment may pose both direct and indirect threats to wildlife populations (i.e., anthrax, plague, tularemia; Alibek and Handelman 2000). Virulent strains of natural disease pathogens known to have been cultured and tested for bioweapon attacks against domesticated livestock (e.g., rinderpest, FMD, brucellosis) could have potentially devastating effects on naive and susceptible populations of susceptible wild ungulates. The Great African Rinderpest epizootic of a century ago provides a useful model for predicting the potential effects of the proliferation of highly virulent and contagious bioweapon diseases on susceptible wildlife and livestock species. Rinderpest virus was introduced into Africa in 1887 through cattle imported to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) from India to provision European colonial armies. The subsequent epidemic outbreak of rinderpest that began in 1889 swept from the Horn of Africa to the southern cape in less than a decade, exhibiting an effective average dispersal rate of approximately 3 km per day during an era predating automobiles and aircraft. The rinderpest panzootic proliferated rapidly among native African cattle breeds and susceptible wild ungulate species, killing an estimated 90% to 95% of the cattle, African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), and wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) in East Africa within 3 years of its first appearance in the region (Daszak et al. 2000). Cattle populations were devastated and African buffalo extirpated from most of their range in southern and eastern Africa. The African buffalo, formerly the most characteristic and abundant ungulate of the African plains, was reduced to a few small, scattered relict herds (Sinclair 1979). Despite intensive control efforts over the past century, rinderpest is still enzootic within East Africa, with periodic outbreaks occurring among livestock and wildlife populations in the region (Dobson 1994). The importance of buffalo as a food resource for African huntergatherer societies was surpassed, however, by the immense importance of domesticated cattle to pastoral and agricultural societies of eastern and southern Africa. Cattle have served for centuries, and in some instances perhaps millennia, as the principal source of food, wealth, and motive energy for the Nilotic and Bantu peoples of eastern and southern Africa. The rinderpest epidemic effectively dispossessed indigenous African peoples of food resources, traditional livelihoods, and wealth and property in ways that were potentially more disruptive to traditional cultural milieus than the physical displacement from traditional territories and the political and economic subjugation of African peoples by European colonial administrations. Milk and meat from cattle provide critically important sources of essential dietary protein in African pastoral and agrarian societies (Holtzman 2001), while the cattle themselves were (and still are throughout much of the continent) important for the cultivation and fertilization of food crops and as the principal real property assets of families living under communal or open land-tenure systems. The Nilotic pastoral peoples of eastern Africa who depended entirely or primarily on the blood and milk of cattle for nutrition and subsistence were devastated by the rinderpest epidemic of the 1890s; an estimated two-thirds of the Masai people of eastern Africa starved to death during a single two-year period following the destruction of their herds by rinderpest (Sinclair 1979). Traditional cattle-raising and farming societies, such as the Sukuma and Samburu peoples of eastern Africa and the Ndebele and Zulu peoples of southern Africa, were also severely affected by the rinderpest epidemic. The immediate social and economic effects of the 18891899 rinderpest epidemic on the Bantu and Nilotic peoples of eastern and southern Africa closely parallel the effects of the extirpation of the Plains bison (Bison bison) on Native American peoples in the Great Plains region of North America from 1870 to 1885. In evolutionary and ecological terms, however, the impacts of the great rinderpest epidemic on African ungulate faunas may have been surpassed by the effects of the chestnut blight fungus (Cryphonectria parasitica, formerly Endothia parasitica) on the temperate deciduous forest biome of eastern North America. The American chestnut (C. dentata), once the dominant and most abundant tree species of eastern North American forests, has been extirpated throughout its range by the chestnut blight. Before disappearance, the American chestnut was an important timber and fuelwood tree that provided an abundant and high-quality food resource for wildlife, livestock, and human populations throughout much of eastern North America. Chestnut blight was first recorded in New York City in 1904, presumably having been introduced along with Japanese chestnut trees (C. crenata) imported as nursery stock. The chestnut blight spread at a rate estimated at between 2050 miles per year, reducing the American chestnut to a state of virtual extinction throughout its range by 1950. Current efforts to save the American chestnut from extinction focus on biological control of the disease itself through a virulence-attenuating virus and hybridization and backcrossing with a blight-resistant related species, the Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima). The American elm (Ulmus americana) is another characteristic and formerly common tree of eastern North American landscapes that has also been driven to virtual extinction by an introduced fungal pathogen, the Dutch elm disease Ophiostoma (Ceratocystis) ulmi. A century later, New York City is the apparent entry site for an emerging and potentially fatal disease of humans and animals, the West Nile virus (WNV). The establishment and spread of WNV in North America after its appearance in 1999 is perhaps the best available modern example of the potential dispersal capabilities of bioweapon diseases within and among human and animal populations. The dispersion of WNV illustrates the immense (and in some cases possibly insurmountable) difficulties in identifying and controlling cryptic and potentially lethal zoonotic diseases. WNV is a mosquito-transmitted disease of birds and mammals, including humans, which causes high rates of mortality in some host species (Rappole et al. 2000). Although WNV is primarily a disease of birds, mammals are common secondary but dead-end hosts for this virus. WNV infections have been reported from numerous species of both wild and domesticated mammals (e.g., humans, horses, cats, bats, chipmunks, skunks, squirrels, domestic rabbits, and raccoons). West Nile virus has become firmly established in eastern North America during the past 3 years, and it appears probable that migrating birds may ultimately spread the disease throughout the Americas and the Caribbean. As of March 2002, WNV has been confirmed in 27 states in the eastern United States, as well as in Ontario (Canada) and the Cayman Islands (ERAP 2002). The history of bovine tuberculosis and rinderpest in Africa and brucellosis in North America shows that exotic diseases may be difficult or impossible to eradicate once they have been introduced and have become established in wild species within new localities. In the case of anthrax, the risk of subsequent disease outbreaks within contaminated areas may continue for decades and even centuries after the total eradication of hosts and vectors: Viable, infectious anthrax bacilli have been cultured from animal bones buried for 150 to 200 years in archeological sites (de Vos 1990, Dixon et al. 1999). Bioweapon diseases may spread faster and prove much more difficult to suppress and eradicate than the historical examples cited above might indicate, given the exceptional virulence and environmental resilience of cultured bioweapon disease strains (Alibek and Handelman 2000). Bioweapon threats to biodiversityEfforts to control human disease epidemics resulting from plague and tularemia bioweapon attacks will need to take into account the eradication of potential animal reservoirs and insect vectors once initial outbreaks among human populations have been contained (Alibek and Handelman 2000). As potential disease reservoirs, rare or endangered species populations within affected areas may be subject to eradication as well. Thus, endangered species now restricted to a few relict and isolated populations within highly urbanized landscapes (e.g., Stephen's Kangagroo Rat, Dipodomys stephensi) could be at high risk for extinction under such circumstances. It is worth noting in this context that an extraordinarily high number of endangered and threatened species (including D. stephensi) are now largely or entirely restricted to habitats located in and around US military installations and military training ranges, which could be potential targets of bioweapons attacks; more than 220 federally listed threatened or endangered species have been confirmed as residents or migrants on US military lands. Although military lands represent only about 3% of all US federal lands, they contain disproportionately high percentages of habitat for endangered species of plants and animals (Leslie et al. 1996).Wild plant and animal species that are naturally rare and species that have been severely depleted in numbers from overharvesting or habitat degradation are particularly susceptible to extinction by introduced diseases (Dobson and May 1986). Diseases to which humans and human commensals have developed immunity or high levels of resistance may cause catastrophic mortality in naive and susceptible wildlife populations. Small absolute population sizes, inbreeding depression, and exposure to exotic disease organisms are a potential recipe for the extinction of endangered and threatened wildlife species (Singer et al. 2001). There needs to be much wider recognition by scientists and the public of the danger that diseases of domesticated animals and humans pose for wildlife and endangered species populations, and of the pivotal role of human interventions in fostering the introduction and establishment of exotic diseases of plants and animals to new areas (Dudley 1993, Daszak et al. 2000). Bioweapon applications are only the most extreme example of the larger invasive species problems associated with the introductions of exotic diseases and organisms to new areas as the result of deliberate or inadvertent human activities. The potentially devastating harm of even localized disease outbreaks on endangered species is illustrated by the effects of canine distemper on the North American black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes), the Caspian seal (Phoca caspica), and the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Canine distemper is a common viral disease of domesticated dogs that can spill over into wildlife populations, with appalling results on susceptible species of wild carnivores. Disturbingly, canine distemper is also a disease that has been cultured and tested in bioweapon laboratories (Kortepeter et al. 2001). During the past decade, canine distemper outbreaks resulted in the extinction of the last known wild population of the North American black-footed ferret and the African wild dog population of the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania (Daszak et al. 2000). Habitat loss and persecution, exacerbated by the effects of canine distemper on ferrets and sylvatic plague on prey populations (prairie dogs), caused the decline and ultimate extinction of black-footed ferrets from their formerly vast range within the Great Plains region of North America. Similarly, persecution and predator-control operations have reduced the once widely distributed African wild dog to a few small and scattered populations that are now gravely threatened by spillover infections of canine distemper and rabies from domestic dog populations (Ginsberg et al. 1995). An outbreak of distemper in the Serengeti region of Tanzania during the early 1990s caused the extirpation of the resident wild dog population and the death of approximately one-third of the Serengeti's resident lion population. The small resident population of endangered cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) could have been driven to the verge of extinction in the Serengeti had they experienced rates of distemper morbidity and mortality comparable to that observed among African wild dogs and lions at this site (Kelly 2001). Livestock breed conservation is important for the retention of the genetic raw material for morphological and physiological adaptations that may provide enhanced resistance to insects, parasites, and disease and to the effects of climate, altitude, solar radiation, and other key environmental factors. Worldwide, there are approximately 4000 recognized breeds and local breed varieties of the principal domesticated livestock species (ass, cattle, water buffalo, pig, horse, sheep, goats). This once great array of local and endemic livestock breeds has been drastically eroded over the past century (Ruane 2000). At least 700 of the surviving local and traditional breeds of these seven livestock species, including 350 breeds in Europe alone, are in imminent danger of disappearance because of the global emphasis on a few highly cosmopolitan commercial breeds. Most remaining local livestock breeds have critically small population sizes and highly localized distributions, restricted in some instances to only one or two farms located within a single village or township (Ruane 2000). Local breeds often consist of highly inbred lines that may be susceptible to extinction as the result of even an extremely localized disease outbreak (Ruane 2000, Toro et al. 2000). News reports in March 2001 indicated that at least one of England's relict endemic sheep breeds had been condemned to extinction through sanitary slaughter as a consequence of the recent FMD outbreak. In view of the potential effects of sanitary slaughter on the maintenance of genetic diversity within rare livestock breeds, the European Union and British government have now established policies for exempting rare breeds from prohibitions on disease vaccination and precautionary sanitary slaughter under certain circumstances (DEFRA 2002). Some diseases that cause high rates of morbidity and mortality in humans or domesticated animals may occur in wildlife species without manifesting clinical signs of disease infection (e.g., hantaviruses, Trypanosma spp.). Control measures for zoonotic diseases may result in concerted efforts to eradicate any and all wildlife species that may be potential reservoirs, intermediate hosts, or vectors for disease transmission to humans or domesticated animals. Containment of plague and tularemia disease outbreaks resulting from bioweapon attacks will necessitate the control or eradication of rodent populations within affected areas to prevent the subsequent transmission of the disease from infected rodents to humans (Alibek and Handelman 2000). Populations of many wildlife species are already routinely subject to stringent control or local extirpation in many areas to control the transmission of endemic diseases to domesticated animals, in some instances without any supporting evidence to validate the clinical efficacy of such efforts. In the United States, programs to control brucellosis in cattle populations have resulted in the culling or attempted eradication of populations of bison (Bison bison), elk (Cervus canadensis), and whitetail deer (Odocoileus virginiana). Other examples of such control programs include the routine culling of wild boar (Sus scrofa) populations in several European countries to control the transmission of classical swine fever to domesticated swine. Rabies control programs target populations of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Europe and North America, jackals (Canis mesomelas) in eastern and southern Africa, raccoons (Procyon lotor) in southern and eastern North America. In Central and South America, vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) and other bat species are killed in large numbers to reduce rabies infections among humans and livestock. Veterinary quarantine and control programs for wild animals have been successfully constrained or curtailed in some areas by strong public opposition, however. For example, efforts currently under way to reduce the incidence of Lyme disease among humans by the large-scale culling of whitetail deer populations in the eastern United States have been blocked in many localities as the result of political lobbying and legal challenges by animal rights organizations (e.g., Animal Protection Institute 1997). Conflict and contagionBreakdowns in medical and veterinary support systems during wars and civil conflicts have resulted in epidemic outbreaks of diseases within and among human, livestock, and wildlife populations (Lawrence et al. 1980, Kobuch et al. 1990). Recent outbreaks of several lethal epizootic diseases (monkeypox, Marburg fever, plague) in Central Africa have been linked to increased human consumption of species of wild animals (e.g., squirrels and rodents) as the result of wartime food shortages, coupled with the disappearance of preferred bushmeat species (primates, duikers) caused by overharvesting for the bushmeat trade (Fenner 1993, IRIN 1997, Dudley et al. 2002). The IranIraq war and the Gulf war precipitated rinderpest epizootics among livestock populations in that region, which may have been caused or aggravated by war-related displacements of pastoralists and their flocks (Roeder 1999).Disruption of government veterinary services during the civil war in Southern Rhodesia is believed to have contributed to epidemic outbreaks of anthrax and rabies among wild and domesticated animals in that country, now named Zimbabwe. Anthrax mortality among humans and livestock reached epidemic proportions in 1979 and 1980 and continued to proliferate for more than 4 years following the end of the civil war in 1980 (Lawrence et al. 1980, Kobuch et al. 1990). Control and containment of the disease may have been hindered by internal ethnic and political conflicts in the Matabeleland region during the early postwar era (19801984). Anthrax ultimately spread through six of Zimbabwe's eight provinces, with more than 10,000 recorded human cases before effective control of the disease was finally reestablished in 1987 (Pugh and Davies 1990). Although anthrax is endemic to the Matabeleland region of Zimbabwe, where the outbreak first appeared and proliferated, widely publicized speculation has it that the 19791987 anthrax epidemic may have been linked to covert operations of the apartheid South African Defense Force, the Rhodesian Central Intelligence Organization, or rival guerrilla factions (Carus 2001). However, there seems to be little evidence to support allegations of the use of weaponized anthrax against human populations in Zimbabwe, as the vast majority of documented cases involved secondary cutaneous infections resulting from apparent contact with diseased cattle (Kobuch et al. 1990, Pugh and Davies 1990). This interpretation appears to be supported by the subsequent resurgence of human anthrax in Zimbabwe in recent years (Mwenye et al. 1996), with nearly 1000 documented human cases and at least 11 deaths recorded in 2000 and 2001 (ISID 2001). Economic distress and the disruption of anthrax vaccination programs and veterinary services as the result of internal political turmoil appear to be important factors behind the current anthrax outbreak in Zimbabwe, as was apparently the case during the 19791987 outbreak as well. Deteriorating economic conditions and food shortages seem to be driving villagers to risk disease or death from infections acquired through butchering diseased cattle for the consumption or sale of meat and hides (ISID 2001). Technologies and threatsThe threat of attacks with biological weapons has increased greatly since the ratification of the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention in 1975. Although recent advances in biotechnology have augmented the potential economic value of the genetic diversity of organisms by enabling the transfer of genes between even unrelated species (Perrings et al. 1995), they have also increased the threat of their elimination through the use of genetically modified disease organisms as weapons of mass destruction. The breakup of the Soviet bioweapons program and the dispersal of its scientists and technicians may have heightened, rather than lowered, the global proliferation of bioweapons technologies (Bozheyeva et al. 1999). The basic techniques for culturing many bioweapon organisms are relatively simple, and microbrewery and pharmaceutical equipment, easily adaptable for bioweapons production, is readily available through domestic and international commercial markets (OTA 1993). The cost of developing small-scale but nonetheless sophisticated bioweapons facilities and arsenals is in the range of $10,000 to $100,000, an amount easily affordable for affluent and technologically sophisticated domestic terrorist groups like the Aum Shinrikyo or well-funded international organizations such as Al Qaeda, Hamas, and Hezbollah (USCNS/21 1999).Nevertheless, specialized technicians and state-of-the-art research facilities are not necessary for the production and deployment of many highly dangerous bioweapons organisms for clandestine, economically targeted assaults on agricultural crops or livestock populations (OTA 1993). Bioweapon cultures, diseased animals, or infectious materials could be easily introduced into international cargo transportation networks for shipment to the United States or elsewhere, with virtually no risk of identification or interception (Flynn 2000). The spillover of weaponized livestock diseases into susceptible wildlife populations could amplify and exacerbate the effects of initial attacks and create situations in which disease containment and control could become extremely difficult and total eradication virtually impossible (Daszak et al. 2000). There appears to be increasing interest on the part of international terrorist groups in bioweapons technologies and applications. There is evidence that bioweapon research facilities have been established in countries such as Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Libya that are known to have (or have had) cooperative or supportive relationships with international terrorist organizations. Nonetheless, we predict that runaway disease epidemics resulting from terrorist uses of bioweapons will most likely arise from accidental or inadvertent releases of virulent, broad-spectrum disease agents in developing countries, as the result of
Economic impactsThe recent outbreak of FMD in Britain demonstrates that even countries with a well-organized and technologically sophisticated veterinary services infrastructure are susceptible to introductions (whether deliberate or inadvertent) of highly infectious pathogenic agents into their livestock populations. The economic consequences of a disease epidemic affecting livestock are severe for any country, whether industrialized or developing. For example, the total costs of containment and eradication of the 1997 FMD outbreak in Taiwan approached $15 billion. Direct and indirect losses to the British economy associated with the 2001 FMD outbreak are expected to be $12 billion to $14 billion (OIE 2001). Losses in meat and livestock export revenue amounted to approximately $14 million per week. Estimated losses to the tourism industry because of restrictions on travel in affected areas were estimated at around $350 million per week in March 2001, or 25 times (2,500%) higher than concurrent direct losses in the agricultural export sector. Total economic losses to the national tourism industry during the peak of the FMD epidemic in March 2001 were estimated at more than $4 billion and are still rising (Dudley and Woodford 2002). The potential for catastrophic social and economic consequences from bioweapon disease epidemics is proportionally higher in developing countries, where doctors, veterinarians, antibiotics, and medical or veterinarian treatment and quarantine facilities are in short supply.Technical and logistical capabilities for countering the impacts of disease threats from bioweapons and emerging infectious diseases may be handicapped by the ongoing proliferation of drug-resistant disease strains of important diseases such as tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and malaria (Plasmodium spp.). Improper use and inappropriate uses of antibiotics to suppress diseases and infections in both humans and animals are contributing to the emergence of drug-resistant strains of many important human and animal pathogens. The current widespread use of antibiotics in livestock feeds, now banned only in the European Union, may have serious epidemiological consequences (McDonald et al. 2001). Nearly half of all antibiotics used in the United States are dispensed in animal feeds, despite growing scientific concern over that practice (Gorbach 2001). Incomplete treatment regimens, inappropriate clinical applications, adulterated medicines, and both inadvertent and deliberate subtherapeutic uses of antibiotics are resulting in the evolutionthrough human selectionof highly resistant and highly virulent strains of disease organisms. In effect, the current situation represents an ongoing, essentially uncontrolled field experiment in the cultivation and proliferation of antibiotic-resistant microbe populations. This problem may well be aggravated by fear of exposure to bioterrorist attackswitness the panic-inspired purchases and consumption of antibiotics by American citizens after the anthrax attacks during September and November 2001. Subsequent events proved that such concerns were not entirely unwarranted5 of the 21 people known to have contracted anthrax as the result of exposure to contaminated mail subsequently died as the result of undiagnosed or tardily diagnosed pulmonary anthrax infections. ConclusionsThere appears to be little possibility for preventing bioweapon attacks against domesticated animals and the subsequent spillover of weaponized livestock diseases into wildlife populations. Bioterrorist attacks against livestock would not require access to weapons-grade disease strains or laboratory cultures; natural diseases that can cause catastrophic epidemics are common and widely dispersed within many countries around the world and are easily acquired. The ease and rapidity of international transport of potential human and animal vectors, coupled with the increasing virulence and variety of human-selected and human-engineered disease organisms, are setting the stage for disease epidemic scenarios that could equal or surpass those of any known historical incident. The United States must strengthen its capability for early detection of diseased animals, both wild and domesticated, and increase the availability of control technologies and containment facilities. Scientists and agricultural economists must communicate with policymakers and legislators to impress upon them the potential importance of spillover impacts of agricultural bioweapons on ecosystems and nonagricultural sectors of national economies.Our ability to understand and control the spread of diseases within and among human and animal populations is growing, but it is still insufficient to counter the existing threats posed by bioweapons and a growing number of newly recognized emerging infectious diseases. Interdisciplinary and international efforts to increase the surveillance and identification of disease pathogens, and to better understand the potential dynamics of disease transmission within and among human and animal populations in both industrialized and developing countries, will greatly enhance our ability to combat the effects of bioweapons and emerging diseases on biotas and biodiversity. Improved mechanisms for interagency and intergovernmental communication, cooperation, and collaboration are necessary to effectively combat and control the threats of bioweapon disease outbreaks. Expenditures on disease prevention and on containment and control infrastructure may prove expensive in the short term, but collateral benefits for public health and food security will greatly enhance the value of such investment to the national and global economy. Failures in the prevention and containment of bioweapon disease outbreaks could result in the erosion of genetic diversity in wild and domesticated animal species, the extinction of endangered species, the extirpation of indigenous peoples, and the destruction of human livelihoods and traditional cultures. AcknowledgmentsThe authors thank Mark Wheelis, Matt Greenstone, and four anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on preliminary drafts.References cited
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Pigs killed during an outbreak of classical swine fever in Belgium in 1988. Photograph by H. K. Müller, Swiss Federal Veterinary Office
Pigs killed during an outbreak of classical swine fever in Belgium in 1988. Photograph by H. K. Müller, Swiss Federal Veterinary Office
Author notes© 2002 American Institute of Biological Sciences | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Covid-19 may be man-made, claims Taiwan scholar | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
As scientists, doctors, academics and conspiracy theorists toss around ideas and speculate on where the highly infectious virus originated, a professor in etiology at the National Taiwan University has claimed that the highly infectious virus could be synthetic in nature in other words, man-made.
Questions about the exact origin of the novel coronavirus have grown as it spread across China and then beyond. Hubei, the central Chinese province where it first erupted, reported 499 new cases on Tuesday, while South Korea, Japan, Singapore and Italy have become the new frontiers in the battle to contain the contagion. Speculation has grown about how the Covid-19 virus came into being. The official conclusion by Chinese authorities is that a dingy wet market in Wuhan Hubeis capital was the source of the respiratory pathogen as animal-human transmission could have occurred there. There has been much speculation about a virology institute in the city, affiliated with the Chinese Academy of Sciences, with rumors about a leakage due to slack management triggering a public health crisis worse than the SARS incident of 2003. Some of the more nonsensical talk includes a conspiracy theory that the United States made the virus to mass-infect Chinese people and stop the rise of its arch-rival. Now a professor in etiology at the National Taiwan University has claimed the highly infectious virus could be synthetic in nature, or man-made. Researchers likely synthesized the Covid-19, although more studies are needed to be certain, NTU professor Fang Chi-tai told a forum on disease control and prevention in Taipei held by the Taiwan Public Health Association earlier this month. During his presentation, Fang outlined several hypotheses raised by Taiwanese and overseas researchers, including the probability that the virus was man-made and was leaked from the Wuhan Institute of Virology due to gross mismanagement. Fang said the Wuhan facilitys biosafety level-4 laboratory was used to store, handle and research samples of SARS, Ebola and other deadly infectious viruses. Given Chinas poor track record of lab safety management, including a leakage of the SARS virus at a state lab in 2004, it is possible that a virus escaped from the Wuhan facility and resulted in the epidemic, Fang was quoted by Taiwans Central News Agency and the Taipei Times as saying. He added that analyses of the Covid-19 virus have shown that it had a 96% genetic similarity with an RaTG13 bat virus also stored at the institute, and that the Covid-19 could be manufactured by modifying the RaTG13 virus. Fang also revealed that French researchers had discovered four more amino acids in the gene sequence of Covid-19 than other known coronaviruses, which could be added artificially to make the viral transmission easier. Fangs theory is that natural mutations of viruses will only result in small, singular changes, and it is suspicious to see a naturally mutated virus suddenly take on four amino acids. Determining the source of the virus would have important implications for epidemiology, he added, saying that if the virus was indeed synthetic, then it could be easier for it to be eradicated. Meanwhile, Taiwans top research institute Academia Sinica said its researchers had already developed an antibody testing method for Covid-19 infection and made encouraging progress in synthesizing remdesivir, a medicine that many believe could cure the infection. Taiwans Center for Disease Control on Tuesday sent serum samples from three people who had contact with Taiwans first Covid-19 fatality to the Academia Sinica, as part of a joint effort to determine the source of that infection and if the three had developed antibodies. The initial tests showed that only one sample had antibodies for Covid-19 and SARS. The sample was obtained from a Taiwanese businessperson who was not listed as a confirmed case, as researchers believed his immune system had beaten the virus. Yet the institute said it was still a mystery whether a person who had recovered from a novel coronavirus infection could contract it again. Another team at Taiwans Institute of Chemistry has also succeeded in synthesizing 100mg of remdesivir. The synthesized drug cannot be used without the consent of a US pharmaceutical firm that manufactures remdesivir. It was reported that Taiwan was negotiating a technology transfer deal to start mass production of the antiviral drug. Remdesivir is a novel drug developed by the California-based Gilead Sciences as a treatment for Ebola virus and Marburg virus infections, and it has subsequently been found to show antiviral activity against other viruses. Based on its success against other coronavirus infections, Gilead provided remdesivir to physicians that treated an American patient infected with Covid-19 and was offering the compound to China for a pair of trials in infected individuals with and without severe symptoms. The mystery of how and where the virus started may take longer to discover than the cure. Read more: Coronavirus lab leakage rumors spreading Radical measures rolled out as Chinese cities battle virus Gaffes and blame: cadres in virus-stricken Hubei | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Explained: Scientific indications that show COVID-19 is man-made, Opinions & Blogs News | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), some Western scientists sympathetic to China and the obsequious media have expended enormous efforts to convince the public that the COVID-19 pandemic is a naturally-occurring outbreak of disease.
Included in that effort are restrictions imposed by the Chinese government on academic research related to the origins of COVID-19, in what is likely part of a wider attempt to control the narrative surrounding the origin of the pandemic. There are now rumours swirling within the global scientific community that Western professional journals are submitting to pressure from Beijing and refusing to publish data that do not conform to the naturally-occurring interpretation of the origin of COVID-19. The narrative promoted by the CCP is that COVID-19, while circulating in a bat population mutated, acquiring the ability to infect humans, which was then transmitted to people either visiting or working in the Wuhan Seafood Market. First of all, it was already known by the end of January 2020, that the initial patients hospitalised between December 1-10, 2019 had not visited the market and bats were not sold there. Despite the extraordinary propaganda campaign mounted by the Chinese government and its sycophants in the West, the origin of COVID-19 remains unknown and all of the structurally close bat coronaviruses so far identified to explain its origin have only raised more doubts. In the February 3, 2020 Nature article, scientists from the Wuhan Institute of Virology, led by Zheng-Li Shi, claimed that the coronavirus RaTG13, isolated from bats in Yunnan Province, China, showed a 96.2% sequence identity with COVID-19 and, therefore, RaTG13 is the closest relative of COVID-19 and forms a distinct lineage from other coronaviruses. A month later on March 17, 2020, the article The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2, widely-cited by scientists and the media, supported the conclusion that RaTG13 is CoVid-19s closest relative, which likely jumped from animals to humans in the Wuhan Seafood Market. It was later revealed that RaTG13 only existed on paper and was actually a duplicate of another bat coronavirus, BtCoV/4991, about which very little experimental data have been published. Nevertheless, if we use the RaTG13 sequence, which has provided the basis of Chinas naturally-occurring theory for the origin of COVID-19, holes begin to appear in its argument. COVID-19s receptor binding domain, which allows the attachment of the virus to a human cell, is structurally closer in its amino acid sequence to that of pangolins (scaly anteaters) than to bat RaTG13. COVID-19 N S N N L D S K V G G N Y N Y L Y R L F R K S N L K P F E R D I S T E I Y Q A G S T P C N G V E G F N C Y F P L Q S Y G F Q P T N G V G Y Q P Y Pangolin N S N N L D S K V G G N Y N Y L Y R L F R K S N L K P F E R D I S T E I Y Q A G S T P C N G V E G F N C Y F P L Q S Y G F H P T N G V G Y Q P Y RaTG13 N S K H I D A K E G G N F N Y L Y R L F R K A N L K P F E R D I S T E I Y Q A G S K P C N G Q T G L N C Y Y P L Y R Y G F Y P T D G V G H Q P Y As you can see, the pangolin sequence differs from COVID-19 by only one amino acid, while RaTG13 differs in seventeen positions. Within the receptor-binding domain there are fourteen specific amino acids that were previously shown to be critical for coronaviruses to bind to the angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 receptor that initiates the COVID-19 infection in humans. At least two pangolin species match those critical COVID-19 amino acids in thirteen out of fourteen positions, whereas RaTG13 matches only seven out of fourteen and other bat coronaviruses do so to an even lesser extent. Chinese scientists suggest that the pangolin receptor binding domain was donated to COVID-19, presumably through some type of recombinant event occurring between a bat coronavirus and a pangolin coronavirus inside a pangolin host. Their naturally-occurring explanation for the presence of a pangolin-like receptor binding domain is highly speculative and no evidence exists to support such a contention. A far more likely scenario is that the native receptor binding domain within a bat coronavirus backbone was artificially replaced with one from a pangolin strain. After that, came the insertion of the furin polybasic cleavage site, found in COVID-19 and none of the close bat coronaviruses relatives yet identified and a distinctive feature is widely known for its ability to enhance pathogenicity and transmissibility in coronaviruses. There is additional information now being discussed on virology blogs indicating that COVID-19 is not naturally-occurring because its differential ratio of synonymous to non-synonymous substitution is vastly different compared to that which occurs in nature among bat populations as well as natural factors that would select against the presence of a furin polybasic cleavage site. Chinas ongoing propaganda campaign and its associated Western censorship will not stop honest scientific inquiry from discovering the true origin of COVID-19. (Disclaimer: The opinions expressed above are the personal views of the author and do not reflect the views of ZMCL) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| EU's Foreign Affairs Chief calls for independent inquiry into coronavirus origin | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Among other nations, the European Union has urged for an independent scientific inquiry into the origin of the coronavirus outbreak on May 14. High Representative of the EU for foreign affairs Josep Borrell deemed the inquiry necessary in his column in a German newspaper and called on China for its contribution in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic. The virus that has rocked the world since it was discovered in Chinas Wuhan in December 2019. It has now spread to over 213 countries and territories and has infected over 4.5 million people.
Read - WHO Stresses Need To Find Source Of Coronavirus, Says It 'can Mutate' Even though China has repeatedly claimed that it was honest about the coronavirus data and open about its approach to contain the disease, the United States, EU and some Western countries have showcases mistrust. According to reports, the EU's foreign affairs chief has even said that China must stand up to its responsibilities commensurate with its weight in battling the COVID-19 pandemic, research on its vaccines and also pumping the global economy. According to Borrell, the Asian superpower must also play its role in the major debt relief effort for the developing countries, especially the pens that are severely affected. Read - European Cross-country Champ Fsiha Cops Four-year Doping Ban Read - WHO Stresses Need To Find Source Of Coronavirus, Says It 'can Mutate' During the daily press briefing, while answering a question about a report by the European Union that stated China was spreading disinformation, Chinas foreign ministry spokesperson Geng Shuang reportedly said on April 27 that China is not instigator of such information but a victim of disinformation. According to international reports, Beijing was even pressuring Brussels to block the report that alleged China of spreading misinformation about the COVID-19 disease after it originated in the mainland in late December. The report was finally released before the weekend after apparently shifting and changing some criticism directed towards the Chinese government. According to sources of an international media outlet, it was the European Unions way to balance the act of accusing China amid coronavirus outbreak. Read - EU Warns Govts Against Using Virus-tracing Apps For Surveillance Over Privacy Breach Fear Read - EU Suspends Delivery Of 10 Million Masks Over Quality Issues Image Source: AP | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Didnt Come from Pangolins, Scientists Say | Medicine | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
A team of researchers from China and the United States has sequenced the genome of pangolin-CoV-2020, a coronavirus isolated from sick Malayan pangolins (Manis javanica), and found that this virus is genetically similar to SARS-CoV-2 but isnt its precursor.
 A Malayan pangolin (Manis javanica) climbing a lychee tree. Image credit: Jinping Chen.Epidemiological study suggested SARS-CoV-2 was associated with the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, a live animal and seafood market in Wuhan. Soon after the release of the SARS-CoV-2 genome, scientists sequenced the full genome of Bat-CoV-RaTG13, a coronavirus isolated from a bat species called Rhinolophus affinis. This virus was 96% identical at the whole genome level to SARS-CoV-2, suggesting the latter could be of bat origin. However, because direct human-bat contact is rare, it seems to be more likely that SARS-CoV-2 jumped to humans from an intermediate host rather than directly from bats, as was the cases with both SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV viruses. To effectively control the disease and prevent new spillovers, it is critical to identify the animal origin of SARS-CoV-2, said Dr. Jinping Chen from the Guangdong Institute of Applied Biological Resources and colleagues. In the new study, the researchers assembled the complete genome of the pangolin-CoV-2020 coronavirus identified in three individuals from two groups of sick Malayan pangolins, which were likely to be smuggled for black market trade. Their results showed that pangolin-CoV-2020 is genetically associated with both SARS-CoV-2 and a group of bat coronaviruses. However, phylogenetic analyses and a special amino acid sequence in the S gene of SARS-CoV-2 did not support the hypothesis of SARS-CoV-2 arising directly from pangolin-CoV-2020. Although our study does not support the idea that pangolins are an intermediate host directly responsible for the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, it is possible that other coronaviruses could be circulating in pangolins, the scientists said. Wildlife conservation and limited exposure to wildlife will be important to minimize the risk that coronaviruses will spill over from wild animals to humans. The study was published in the journal PLoS Pathogens. _____ P. Liu et al. 2020. Are pangolins the intermediate host of the 2019 novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)? PLoS Pathog 16 (5): e1008421; doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008421 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 2:35 PM 5/15/2020 » SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Didn't Come from Pangolins, Scientists Say 15/05/20 13:48 from Google Alert - sars cov 2 - The Origins Of Covid -19, Sars-Cov-2, and Coronavirus | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/sars-cov-2-coronavirus-didnt-come-from.html ___________________________________________________________________ The Origins Of Covid -19, Sars-Cov-2, and Coronavirus _________________________________________________________________
» SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus Didn't Come from Pangolins, Scientists Say
15/05/20 13:48 from Google Alert - sars cov 2
» Is COVID-19 an Act of God and/or Will COVID-19 Be a Defense Against Failure to Perform?
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| 1:35 PM 5/15/2020 » 181 Blacks in Chicago died at home of COVID-19 15/05/20 12:18 from Google Alert - coronavirus and blacks | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/135-pm-5152020-181-blacks-in-chicago.html
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» 181 Blacks in Chicago died at home of COVID-19
15/05/20 12:18 from Google Alert - coronavirus and blacks
» 181 Blacks in Chicago died at home of COVID-19
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» NJ coronavirus update: Local healthcare workers get much-needed masks and gowns from Fanatics
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» The Chinese propaganda machine never sleeps. China is going out of its way in a desperate attempt to make the world forget that the virus originated in Wuhan and spread around the globe because Beijing curbed information in the initial days of the outbrea
15/05/20 11:59 from Twitter Search / LawrenceSellin The Chinese propaganda machine never sleeps. China is going out of its way in a desperate attempt to make the world forget that the virus originated in Wuhan and spread around the globe because Beijing curbed information in the initial d... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 11:12 AM 5/15/2020 - Viruses In Food: #AmoyGardens were built on a site of Amoy Food Factory. Were there health problems? Is it why they sold it? #Virus could emerge there, including intentionally from Japanese. This has to be investigated, and may provide the clues. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/amoygardens-were-built-on-site-of- amoy.html _____________________________________________________________________ Amoy Gardens were built on a site of Amoy Food Factory, which might have had serious health problems, that is why they sold it. It might be from the unsanitary conditions or intentional "good by" from the Japanese. This has to be investigated, and may provide the clues.
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| Origins of COVID-19 still a mystery | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
In a quest to find a vaccine or drug treatment for COVID-19, high-performance computer modeling has been used by Australian scientists to study the virus's ability to target a variety of 12 exotic and domestic animals in the hope of identifying the original source of the virus. The study, led by Flinders University scientists, compared the modeling to the virus's ability to bind to human cells and found the SARS-CoV-2 virus targets humans more potently than any of the tested animal species. "The results clearly show that the COVID-19 virus is exquisitely adapted to infect humans," says Flinders University Professor Nikolai Petrovsky, lead author of a new paper just published online in arXiv, a leading US preprint server for researchers. "The virus's ability to bind protein on human cells was far greater than its ability to bind the same protein in bats, which argues against bats being a direct source of the human virus." The team's computer modeling shows the SARS-CoV-2 virus also bound strongly to cells of pangolins, an exotic ant-eater illegally imported into China. "While it has been suggested by some Chinese scientists that the COVID-19 virus might have been transmitted to humans from pangolins, currently available data does not support this idea," Professor Petrovsky says. How and where the SARS-CoV-2 virus adapted to become such an effective human pathogen remains a mystery, the scientists conclude, adding that finding the origins of the disease will help efforts to protect people against future coronavirus pandemics. The research points to a number of reasons why the virus became so well adapted to humans, such as convergent evolution after exposure to human cells, rare mutations that mix two species genes, and exposure to human cells very early in the pandemic. But how and where the SARS-CoV-2 virus adapted to become such an effective human pathogen remains a mystery that requires intensive further scientific investigation, the researchers conclude. The article, 'In silico comparison of spike protein-ACE2 binding affinities across species; significance for the possible origin of the SARS-CoV-2 virus' (2020) has been published on the arXiv pre-press server.
More information:
In silico comparison of spike protein-ACE2 binding affinities across species; significance for the possible origin of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
arxiv.org/abs/2005.06199
arXiv:2005.06199v1 [q-bio.BM]
Journal information:arXiv
Citation: Origins of COVID-19 still a mystery (2020, May 14) retrieved 15 May 2020 from <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-05-covid-mystery.html" rel="nofollow">https://medicalxpress.com/news/2020-05-covid-mystery.html</a>
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| #CIA #FBI #ODNI #Senate #House #USMilitary #USIntelligence #News: #Healthcare #collapse #worldwide as the part of the #Covid19 #Global #IntelligenceOperation and #InformationWarfare - Why are people attacking coronavirus healthcare workers with rocks and bleach? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/cia-fbi-odni-senate-house-usmilitary.html Healthcare collapse worldwide as the part of the Covid-19 Global Intelligence Operation and Information Warfare
Why are people attacking coronavirus healthcare workers with rocks and bleach?
#CIA #FBI #ODNI #Senate #House #USMilitary #USIntelligence #News: #Healthcare #collapse #worldwide as the part of the #Covid19 #Global #IntelligenceOperation and #InformationWarfare - Google Search ___________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ CoronaVirus News Review In Brief _________________________________________________________________
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| 7:49 PM 5/14/2020 - CoronaVirus News - Saved Stories Doctors see increase in patients experiencing 'COVID toes' Thu, 14 May 2020 15:46:34 -0400 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/749-pm-5142020-coronavirus-news-saved.html
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| 5:39 PM 5/14/2020 » Saved Stories - Blogs: 10:01 AM 5/13/2020 - The Oktoberfest Hypothesis of the Covid-19 Pandemic' start and origins 14/05/20 15:19 from Blogs The average time period, from start to peak for the epidemics of the flu-like illnesses appears to be approximately 6 months. It looks like the present Covid-19 Epidemic in the Western Europe and New York peaked about April 1... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 The Oktoberfest Hypothesis of the Covid-19 Pandemic - GS https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/saved-stories-blogs-1001-am-5132020.html ___________________________________________________________________ CoronaVirus News Review In Brief _________________________________________________________________
» Saved Stories - Blogs: 10:01 AM 5/13/2020 - The Oktoberfest Hypothesis of the Covid-19 Pandemic' start and origins
14/05/20 15:19 from Blogs The average time period, from start to peak for the epidemics of the flu-like illnesses appears to be approximately 6 months. It looks like the present Covid-19 Epidemic in the Western Europe and New York peaked about April 1 or the begi...
» Saved Stories - Blogs: » Covid-19 more than a lung disease, it can lead to blood clots, say doctors 13/05/20 04:26 from Google Alert - Covid-19 blood clots
14/05/20 15:19 from Blogs <a href="https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/coronavirus-news-coronavirus-news.html" rel="nofollow">https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/coronavirus-news-coronavirus-news.html</a> ______________________________________________________________________ CoronaVirus News CoronaVirus News Review In Brief » Covid - 19 more t...
» From the authors of Paul Has Measles comes Paul Stays Home, an illustrated book about COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 for children https://bit.ly/3bBfGCC free download @profsuslopez @Viro_ConacytMXpic.twitter.com/q0p26CqTP5
14/05/20 15:13 from Twitter Search / profvrr From the authors of Paul Has Measles comes Paul Stays Home, an illustrated book about COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2 for children <a href="https://bit.ly/3bBfGCC" rel="nofollow">https://bit.ly/3bBfGCC</a> free download @ profsuslopez @ Viro_ConacytMX pic.twitter.com/q0p26CqTP5
» Covid-19-Review: 12:56 PM 5/14/2020 - Research: Sars-Cov-2 is the uniquely human virus, and its spontaneous emergence in nature is highly improbable. This is an indication, that it might be the BIOWEAPON.
14/05/20 12:57 from Blogs <a href="https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/research-sars-cov-2-is-uniquely-human.html" rel="nofollow">https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/research-sars-cov-2-is-uniquely-human.html</a> ____________________________________________________________________ Research: Sars-Cov-2 is the uniquely human virus, and its spontaneous emergence ...
» Covid-19-Review: 12:18 PM 5/14/2020 - The Origins of Covid-19: No bats, no pangolins! Sars-Cov-2 is uniquely HUMAN. This virus' emergeence in nature would be "a rare chance event", therefore look for its origins ELSEWHERE!!! (The Bundeswehr's labs, for ex
14/05/20 12:23 from Blogs <a href="https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/1218-pm-5142020-origins-of-covid-19-no.html" rel="nofollow">https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/1218-pm-5142020-origins-of-covid-19-no.html</a> ________________________________________________________________________ The Origins of Covid-19 M.N.: No bats, no pangolins! Sars-Cov-2 is uniquely...
» Covid-19-Review: 11:05 AM 5/14/2020 - WHO says 'delayed epidemic' takes hold in eastern Europe...
14/05/20 11:09 from Blogs <a href="https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/1105-am-5142020-who-says-delayed.html" rel="nofollow">https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/1105-am-5142020-who-says-delayed.html</a> ______________________________________________________________________ Michael Novakhov @mikenov WHO says 'delayed epidemic' takes hold in Eastern Europe ...
» On the latest episode of the #science #podcast This Week in Virology #TWiV Vincent, Kathy and Rich explain the Jenner Institutes #SARSCoV2 vaccine, the NIH decision to stop the Remdesivir study, and answer listener questions. https://bit.ly/2WR26po #CO
14/05/20 10:24 from Twitter Search / profvrr On the latest episode of the # science # podcast This Week in Virology # TWiV Vincent, Kathy and Rich explain the Jenner Institutes # SARSCoV2 vaccine, the NIH decision to stop the Remdesivir study, and answer listener questions. ...
» "And when civilians are not targeted by the army or by the Frontier Corps, the State has the so called Death Squads operating in the region to do the dirtiest jobs on their behalf." https://bit.ly/2Lrf5sB
14/05/20 10:24 from Twitter Search / LawrenceSellin "And when civilians are not targeted by the army or by the Frontier Corps, the State has the so called Death Squads operating in the region to do the dirtiest jobs on their behalf." <a href="https://bit.ly/2Lrf5sB" rel="nofollow">https://bit.ly/2Lrf5sB</a>
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14/05/20 06:55 from Blogs 6:52 AM 5/14/2020 - CoronaVirus News Review In Brief <a href="https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/coronavirus-news-review-in-brief-652-am.html" rel="nofollow">https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/coronavirus-news-review-in-brief-652-am.html</a> _________________________________________________________________ » World G...
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| 12:56 PM 5/14/2020 - Research: Sars-Cov-2 is the uniquely human virus, and its spontaneous emergence in nature is highly improbable. This is an indication, that it might be the BIOWEAPON. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/research-sars-cov-2-is-uniquely-human.html
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| 11:05 AM 5/14/2020 - WHO says 'delayed epidemic' takes hold in eastern Europe... | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/1105-am-5142020-who-says-delayed.html ______________________________________________________________________
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| 12:18 PM 5/14/2020 - The Origins of Covid-19: No bats, no pangolins! Sars-Cov-2 is uniquely HUMAN. This virus' emergeence in nature would be "a rare chance event", therefore look for its origins ELSEWHERE!!! (The Bundeswehr's labs, for example?) - M.N. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 https://covid-19-review.blogspot.com/2020/05/1218-pm-5142020-origins-of-covid-19-no.html ________________________________________________________________________
The Origins of Covid-19
M.N.: No bats, no pangolins! Sars-Cov-2 is uniquely HUMAN. This virus' emergeence in nature would be "a rare chance event", therefore look for its origins ELSEWHERE!!! (The Bundeswehr's labs, for example?) 12:18 PM 5/14/2020
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| 10:01 AM 5/13/2020 - The Oktoberfest Hypothesis of the Covid-19 Pandemic' start and origins | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 The average time period, from start to peak for the epidemics of the flu-like illnesses appears to be approximately 6 months. It looks like the present Covid-19 Epidemic in the Western Europe and New York peaked about April 1 or the beginning of April. This gives the time of the Epidemic start around the beginning of October 2019, the same estimate as in the recent studies. In my opinion, this assumed time frame points to confirmation of the Oktoberfest Hypothesis as the starting point for this Pandemic, which was spread around the world largely by the air travel from Munich, Germany, and later from the other "Karneval" cities in the Western Germany, by the more than 6 million tourists in attendance. The deliberate and intentional spread is very likely, in my opinion. The exact means and the mechanisms of this spread remain to be investigated and elicited. Michael Novakhov 10:01 AM 5/13/2020 ________________________________________________________________ | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 8:45 AM 5/12/2020 - Coronavirus Sars-Cov-2 and Covid-19 Pandemic came from Munich, Germany, possibly from the Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, as their anti-celebration of WW2 defeat; Wuhan, China outbreak was just a cover. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Coronavirus Sars-Cov-2 and Covid-19 Pandemic came from Munich, Germany, possibly from the Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, as their anti-celebration of WW2 defeat; Wuhan, China outbreak was just a cover. 
Director Wolfel, M.D., PhD.
The Chinese Cover
__________________________________________________________________________Keep muzzled up, and shut up about your supposed "Victory", they said. In fact, it was and is your Defeat!  Coronavirus Sars-Cov-2 and Covid-19 Pandemic came from Munich, Germany, possibly from the Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, as their anti-celebration of WW2 defeat; Wuhan, China outbreak was just a cover - Google Search ________________________________ Blogs | In Brief
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